Author - Andrea Fischer, Cultural Affairs Assistant
Is Japan really a monoethnic country?
Japan, when viewed from a distance, often appears to be a monoethnic nation. Renowned for its traditional tea ceremony and kimono, this country is also home to some worldwide-known technological and motor giants. Deemed unique and rare, between 1946 and 1978 the Japanese culture was promoted through Nihonjinron, a series of literary works that focus on issues of Japanese cultural and national identity, prepared by Japanese researchers and journalists. A vital part of the ideology at that time was the belief that all Japanese are of the same ethnic descent and that Japan is a homogenous country. Although this perception still persists in some circles, around 2% of Japanese society are minority groups, including the Ainu.
Who are the Ainu?
The Ainu are an Indigenous ethnic group native to the island of Hokkaido, as well as the northern region of Honshu and southern Sakhalin. Various theories have been proposed regarding their descent, and genetic studies suggest that this minority shares a unique genetic profile. The Ainu could be related to the Mongols, although their anthropological type incorporates caucasian features as well as features typical for the Ainu themselves. While the details of their genealogy remain unclear, it is estimated that the Ainu appeared in Japan around 7000 years ago.
The conquest and assimilation of the Ainu
The first Japanese (known as Wajin) likely reached the Ainu-inhabited lands by the 12th century. Initially, the Ainu engaged in trade with neighboring peoples, but the exchange soon became dominated by Japanese feudal lords and merchants who worked with them. They exported goods from Ainu territories to other parts of the country. Shimekasu, dried and pressed boiled herring used as fertilizer for growing valuable indigo crops, was one of the products that quickly became indispensable. As demand for goods from Hokkaido soared, merchants increasingly took advantage of the Ainu as laborers at fishing sites. The exploitation of Ainu through hard labor was so harsh at times, it led to armed conflicts between the Ainu and Wajin.
The 18th and 19th centuries brought about further expansion and seizure attempts of Hokkaido on behalf of the Japanese, as well as the first legal limitations of the Ainu’s cultural freedom. The intense industrialization process associated with the Meiji restoration, which started in 1868, also worsened the situation of the Ainu. The following legal acts related to the assimilation of Ainu forced them to forsake their language, traditional customs, and eventually their foregoing lifestyle. The Hokkaido Former Aborigine Protection Law, enacted in 1899, was one of them. The aim of this act was to grant land which could be used for farming to the Ainu and assimilate them to Wajin culture and customs through education in the Japanese language. However, the land that was granted was often unsuitable for cultivation or insufficient in size, which was a clear example of ethnic discrimination.
Ultimately, forced labor, land wars, crop devastation, and diseases led to the decline of the Ainu culture and a decrease in their population.
Piłsudski and the Ainu
In 1887, after being banished, Bronisław Piłsudski, Józef Piłsudski’s older brother, began pioneering research on the Ainu minority living on Sakhalin. Later, in 1903, he joined an expedition to Hokkaido, where he obtained authentic photographs and phonograph cylinders that documented traditional Ainu songs, tales, and tattoos. Bronisław Piłsudski’s research is considered to be one of the most reliable studies on the Ainu. On October 19, 2013, a monument honoring Bronisław Piłsudski and his contributions to the Ainu minority was unveiled at the Ainu Museum in Shiraoi.
What is Ainu culture like?
Ainu culture is rich and diverse. It is characterized by a unique language that is not related to Japanese or any other language in the region. In the past, the Ainu language had no written form, and today it is transcribed using katakana—one of the Japanese writing systems—or the Latin alphabet. Unfortunately, due to past assimilation policies and bans on using the language, by the early 21st century, only 10 people were able to speak it. In 2008, UNESCO officially declared the Ainu language endangered.
Cultural distinctiveness of Ainu is also highlighted through their religion, animism and shamanism, which strongly contrast with beliefs dominating in the rest of Japan, that is, Buddhism and Shinto. A central element of Ainu beliefs is the worship of the bear, considered a sacred messenger of the gods. Particularly important is the ceremony of sending off the bear's soul, though this ritual is dying out. For a time being, it was prohibited and later treated only as part of folk performances for tourists. A similar fate has befallen traditional Ainu dances, which once accompanied numerous rituals.
Traditionally, the Ainu made their livelihood through fishing, hunting, and gathering, which were essential for their market. Their handicraft, especially wood carving and embroidery, is characterized by intricate patterns and ornaments that reflect a deep connection with nature and spiritual symbolism.
The struggle for survival and reclaiming identity
The Ainu Association of Hokkaido was founded in 1946, and its aim was to improve the situation of this minority. However, it took several decades for the results of their efforts to become apparent. In 1980, the first Ainu language school was opened, and four years later, the Ainu Association of Hokkaido started urging the government to repeal the 1899 act. The association also advocated for the restoration of Ainu rights, including participation in political life, access to education, fishing rights, and cultural freedom. Later, it petitioned the UN to declare the Ainu an Indigenous people. As a result, in 1997, a law was passed in which Japan committed to protecting and promoting Ainu culture. However, the resolution calling for the recognition of the Ainu as an indigenous people and the elimination of discrimination against them was not adopted by the Japanese government until 2008.
In 2012, the Ainu Party was formed with the aim of continuing efforts to restore full rights and combat the discrimination that the Ainu still face.
The present and future of the Ainu Community
In recent decades, the Ainu culture has experienced a renaissance. It is being promoted among the Japanese, and interest in it is growing, especially due to the development of tourism. An example of this is the continuation of an initiative started over a decade earlier, culminating in the opening of the National Ainu Museum in 2020. However, the Ainu language and art remain endangered due to the declining number of people who can pass them on.
Undoubtedly, the process of assimilation has had a profound impact on Ainu life. Today they live similarly to the Japanese, sometimes choosing to use only the Japanese language. At the same time, they face economic disadvantages, a consequence of years of discrimination. Nevertheless, for the Ainu, their culture remains alive. They promote it whenever possible, though often in commercial settings, and most importantly, they pass it on to their descendants.
Bibliography:
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2.Hosdoa, Shinsuke “Historia i aktualna sytuacja mniejszości etnicznych w Polsce i Japonii na przykładzie Kaszubów, Ajnów i Okinawańczyków” Acta Cassubiana 15 (2013): 89-100.
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5.The Foundation for Ainu Culture. n. d. “History” Accessed September 20, 2024. History | The Foundation for Ainu Culture (ff-ainu.or.jp)